Aristotle Versus Plato Essay

Abstract Plato and Aristotle argue that artist (Demiurge) and poet imitate nature, thus, a work of art is a reflection of nature. However, they have different views on the functions of imitation in art and literature. Plato believes in the existence of the ideal world, where exists a real form of every object found in nature. A work of art –which reflects nature is twice far from the reality it represents. Aristotle, on the other hand, does not deal with the ideal world, instead he analyses nature. He argues that a work of art does not imitate nature as it is, but as it should be. In this sense, an artist does not violate the truth but reflects the reality. Key Words: Imitation, art, literature, mimesis, etymology, ethic. Introduction Plato and Aristotle attribute different meanings to the term ‘mimesis’; Plato considers ‘mimesis’ in ethical and political context, Aristotle uses ‘mimesis’ as an aesthetic phenomenon. They both agree that poetry is mimetic but they have different idea about poetry and ‘mimesis’. The present paper aims first to define ‘mimesis’ and explain the historical and linguistic background of the term, then to analyze the concept of ‘mimesis’ in Plato and Aristotle. In literature the word ‘mimesis’ has two diverse applications; it is used â€Å"to define the nature of literature and other arts and to indicate the relation of one literary work, which serves as a model. † Plato and Aristotle take ‘mimesis’ to define the nature of art, yet they ascribe different meanings and value to it. Plato and Aristotle consider the historical and etymological background of the term, therefore, it is necessary to know about the linguistic and historical background of the term ‘mimesis’ to understand what kinds of meaning and value they attribute to the concept. Linguistically, the root word is ‘mimos’; mimesthia, mimesis, mimetes, mimetikos, and mimema are derived from ‘mimos’. Mimesthia denotes imitation, representation or portrayal; mimos and mimetes designate the person who imitates or represents, whereby ‘mimos’ originally refers to the recitation or dramatic performance in the context of dramatic action. The mime, which is a kind of banquets given by wealthy man, is most probably derived from mimos The noun ‘mimesis’ as well as corresponding verb mimeisthai refer to the re-enactment and dance through ritual and myth. In Athenian drama the re-enactment is equivalent to acting out the role of a mythical figure and ‘mimesis’ in such a context connotes the imitation of the earlier re-enactment of the myth and rituals. Historically, the word ‘mimesis’ as re-enactment first appears in such rituals, and the historical origin of the term, as located in Dionysian cult drama, coincides this meaning in that ‘mimesis’ in both cases refers to imitation, representation and expression. It is argued that myth, and divine symbols of the rituals are transformed to artistic-dramatic representation through which it became possible to represent the divinity and gods in drama. Tragedy, for instance is the transformation of the myth and rituals. In a different context ‘mimesis’ may refer to identification. People identify themselves by means of their mimetic ability when they see themselves in the other and perceive a state of mutual equality. In this sense, ‘mimesis’ is distinct from mimicry, which implies only a physical, and no mental relation. That is, a person regards the ‘Other’ as equal and assumes the ‘Other’ to be doing the same in reverse. Associated with the physical aspect of ‘mimesis’ is its performative aspect, as an actualization, a presentation of what has been mimetically indicated. Thus, the term ‘mimesis’ is combined with an action-oriented speaking. The term ‘mimesis’ may also refer the simile, similarity and representation; it may refer to the symbolization of the world when we take it as a transformation of myth. ‘Mimesis’ has also been cited since classical times in the exploration of relationships between art and reality. The meanings and applications of the term changes according to the context it is used. Therefore, Plato and Aristotle ascribes different meanings and value to ‘mimesis’ with respect to the contexts they use it. The Concept of Imitation in Plato takes the term ‘mimesis’ with several meanings and connotations in the dialogues and alters the meaning of the term according to the context in which he uses it. He uses ‘mimesis’ in the context of the education of the youth; he discusses the function of ‘mimesis’ as likening oneself to another in speech and bodily behaviour and as addressing the lower part of man’s soul; he also refers to the epistemology and metaphysics of the concept. He takes the word ‘mimesis’ with pedagogic attributes and uses it in educational and ethical context when he says ‘guardians of an ideal state should be educated to imitate only what is appropriate’. In the third book of the Republic, for instance, Plato provides further definitions of ‘mimesis’, centering on the relation between ‘mimesis’ and poetry, ‘mimesis’ and education and also poetry and education. ‘Since young people learn essentially through imitation, it is significant to select the models’. ‘Mimesis suggests unfavourable effect on the part of the young people’ and ‘poetry is one important source of the youth’s experience with examples and models’; therefore, if the world of models and examples ought to be controlled in the interest of education, poetry must be likewise subject to control. Plato argues the case in the Republic as follow: The youth cannot distinguish what is allegorical from what is not, and the belief they acquire at the age are hard to expunge and usually remain unchanged. That is important that the first stories they hear should be well told and dispose them to virtue. The contents, forms, and representational modes of poetry play an important ethical role in the education of guardians and should, because of the effects they exercise through mimetic process, be based on ethical principles. Young people should only imitate brave, sober, pious and noble men, which will increase their strength and will not infect them with weakness. In this sense, it is argued in the Republic that tragedy and comedy, as mimetic poetry, represent injustice among the gods in the assertion that gods are responsible for unhappiness among people. In the Platonic conception, gods cannot be evil; heroes cannot be weak. The poet’s representation violates the truth and by representing the deficiencies of gods and heroes, has negative effect on the community and the education of youth. Mimetic poetry not only misrepresents gods and heroes and leads young people to immoral behaviours but also appeals to and strengthens the lower, desiring part of the soul. According to Plato, poetry encourages short-term indulgence in our emotions when reason would forbid their gratification because it is useless or harmful for the citizen who considers life as a whole. ‘Reason is a capacity that enables moral quality and authorities. Poetry is intuitive and stirs up a part of a citizen that ought to be kept quiet and fosters the lower part of the soul against the rule of higher part, reason’ Poetry becomes a dangerous rival to morality, which ‘is able to corrupt even good man and is a very dangerous thing encouraging all the lower desires and making them hard to cope with suffering in the theatre, and taking pleasure in laughing at comedies tends to affect our attitudes in real life and make us cynical and unserious. Sex, anger, and all desires, pleasure and pains are fostered by poetic imitation, thus, Homer and tragic poets are not true example for a citizen’. Poetry, then, taking its theme as human emotion and human frailty, threatens to disturb the balance and rational disposition of the individual for the individual, by way of his mimetic abilities, is infected through poetry. Philosophy provides wisdom and truth in the education but poetry has a potential capacity to demoralize mind. For example, Homer’s poetry was drawn on for educational purposes as a collection of knowledge and wisdom and enter in to competition with philosophy, it should therefore, be censored. It is obvious that poetry endangers the ideal citizens who can control and manage their feelings and remain reasonable, thus should be censored. While being an aspect of misrepresentation and something used in a dangerous way for the education of young people, ‘mimesis’ may also come to mean re-enactment in Plato’s dialogue when it refers to the imitation of a man in action in drama. In the Republic, Plato uses the term to refer to the behaviour of the philosopher: â€Å"As he looks upon and contemplates things that are ordered and ever the same, that do no wrong, are not wronged by, each other, being all in rational order. He imitates them and tries to become like them as he can† A similar process occurs in tragedy, which is the artistic and dramatic re-enactment of ritual and myth and transformation of religion. Through tragedy it becomes possible for a man to represent the divinity and gods. For instance, the re-enactment, in Athenian drama, is equivalent to acting out the role of a mythical figure. ‘Mimesis’, in such a context, designates the imitation of earlier re-enactment, the instances of which is taken from myth and rituals. The nature of ritual is spiritual and pleasing and such primitive rituals serve communal interests, in that each member of community gets rid of self. A tragic play may lead to self alienation; and may lead to identification with the fallen character and with the hero. The process of re-enactment, then, leads one to enter into another’s feelings and suffering. Plato insists that no one of truly noble character could suffer as a tragic hero does, since one whose soul is in a state of harmony is not to be influenced and hurt. Therefore, he objects to the re-enactment of ritual. Mimetic behaviour should be avoided because it may lead to identification with fallen characters and with the hero. Plato in the Republic argues that ‘or have you not observed that imitations, if conditioned, settle down youth’s life, and turn into habits and become second nature in the body, the speech and the thought . Apart from this, people identify themselves by means of their mimetic ability when they see themselves in the other and perceive a state of mutual equality. In this sense ‘mimesis’ is distinct from mimicry, which implies only a physical and no mental, relation: a person regards the ‘Other’ as equal and assumes the ‘Other ‘ to be doing the same in reverse. In this respect, a person who imitates is doomed to self-sacrifice and lack of self-identity. Moreover, the process of mimetic identification becomes a source of pleasure in the form of tragedy, which correspondingly frames the myth or re-enacts to substitute the myth in the form of dramatic representation. In the seventh book of the Republic, which is about law, he states ‘we are ourselves authors of tragedy, and that the finest and the best we know how to make’. In fact, our whole polity has been constructed as a dramatization (mimetic) of noble and perfect life; that is what we hold to be truth in the most of real tragedies’. However, in art, ‘mimesis’ has a different function. Aesthetically, ‘mimesis’ refers to misrepresentation. Reality and truth can only be understood through reason. The artist works with inspiration and imagination: the two faculties don’t give us the true image of reality, and the end of tragedy is a partial loss of moral identity. On the one hand, there is ‘mimesis’ as a re-enactment of Dionysian rituals in the form of tragedy which leads to self-sacrifice and wrong identity and which addresses the lower part of the soul and corrupts the ethical development of the youth. On the other hand, there is ‘mimesis’ as an imitative, imperfect image of reality. In a sense, Plato’s resistance to ‘mimesis’ is not only due to the fact that tragedy (mimetic art) may lead the audiences back to the ritual and irrational mode of primitive society but also due to the fact that mimetic art is an imitation of objects (eidon), which are imitations themselves. He objects to ‘mimesis’ for the fact there is no relationship between what is imitated and what is real. ‘Mimesis’ designates the ability to create expression and representation on the part of poet, painter and actor, both in a general and specific sense. For example, the painter produces a relationship between an image he created and the object. If the relationship consists in the production of similarity, then, there arises a question of where the similarity between image and object lies. If the images he creates don’t make a reference to reality and real object, and if the relationship between object and image is on the level of similarity created by the poet through art, then, there appears a lack of link between true and false. But in Plato’s philosophy the relationship between objects and reality does not consist of likeness or similarity. According to Plato, Demiurge creates the idea and by beholding the idea Demiurge produces the object; his ability is exalted in the imitation of the Idea. The poet, on the other hand, creates the images neither by seeing the idea nor from more substantive knowledge of the object since he produces nothing but phenomena by holding up a mirror. In this sense, the artist produces appearance and his work cannot provide us with true insight. Then, when a poet writes about the bed, for instance, it is not a bed manufactured by the craftsman from the idea nor does it have any relation to the real bed; it is only simulation and phenomena. There is also a difference between the knowledge of the poet and the knowledge of the craftsman. Man makes things and makes images. The craftsman makes the things following the original copy or model; the poet follows the image of the model or copy; therefore he gives only a proportion of reality. The proportion of knowledge and opinion, truth and falsity plays a contrasting role in distinguishing imitation as proportion of being to appearance. Plato argues that to understand the image, one needs to know the reality and the path to reality is in philosophy and reason, not in poetry and emotion. Although Plato admits that every object in nature is a reflection of the Idea, he doesn’t object to the reflection of object in nature. Plato uses mirror and water as constant metaphors to clarify the relationship between reality and the reflection of eidon. Plato argues that the poet holds up mirror to nature and in his work we see the reflection of nature not reality. He objects to the reflection of objects in the mirror, since things are divided into two parts: visible and intelligible. The first of the visible things is the class of copies, which includes shadows and reflections in the mirror. The second class of visible things is that of which the previous is a likeliness or copy. Plato objects to the reflection of object in the mirror, since mirror (poet) imprisons and limits the image. And he also objects to the imitation, since the poet imitates without knowledge. Therefore, it is not its imitative character but its lack of truth and knowledge, which brings poetry to its low estate. Homer and all the poetic tribe are imitators of images of virtue and other things but they do not rely on truth. Poetry, after all, is a madness that seizes the soul when it contemplates in true knowledge of goods. Plato’s objection to ‘mimesis’ may also interpreted as a reaction to the sophistic thinking that aims to produce images that the listener will regard as real, all of which take place in the world of phenomena. Image, thought, and opinion combine into a world of appearance characterized by nonbeing, a phenomenal nature and similarity. And as long as illusion and reality are not distinguished, science, ignorance, and appearance merge together. Within the concept of ‘mimesis’, then, Plato creates an independent sphere of the aesthetic consisting of appearance, image and illusion and excludes it from the domain of philosophy. He insists that there are no phenomena without being, no images without reality, no ‘mimesis’ without a model. Yet reality and idea cannot be represented without knowledge and images are not part of reality. Plato, in the Republic, in Ion, and in Symposium uses the concept of ‘mimesis’ with several meanings. He refers to the education of the young in Book X of the Republic; in Ion he develops a metaphysical discourse on the concept of imitation, and in Book III of the Republic he objects to imitation because ‘mimesis’addresses and strengthens the lower part of the spirit. Plato refers to ethical aspects of ‘mimesis’ whenever he refers to the concept of imitation. That is, ‘mimesis’ is an ethical matter in Plato’s dialogues. He is not interested in the aesthetic aspect of ‘mimesis’; therefore, he does not pay attention to the form and matter of ‘mimesis’and art. Plato deals with the value of ‘mimesis’. Aristotle is the first to deal with ‘mimesis’ as a theory of art. He dwells on the concept of ‘mimesis’ as an aesthetic theory of art and ‘considers imitation in terms of the form in which it is embodied’. By imitation, ‘he means something like representation’ through which ‘mimesis’ becomes the equivalent of artistic and aesthetic enterprise’. Unlike Plato, Aristotle also argues that ‘mimesis’ is not morally destructive since reason controls art. II. The Concept of Imitation in Aristotle Aristotle states that all human actions are mimetic and that men learn through imitation. In particular, ‘mimesis’ is the distinguishing quality of an artist. He argues that ‘public classifies all those who write in meter as poets and completely misses the point that the capacity to produce an imitation is the essential quality of the poet’. The poet is distinguished from the rest of mankind with the ‘essential ability to produce imitation’. A poet may imitate in one of three styles in poetry; he may use pure narrative, in which he speaks in his own person without imitation, as in the dithyrambs, or he may use mimetic narrative and speaks in the person of his characters, as in comedy and tragedy. A poet may use mixed narrative, in which he speaks now in his own person and now in the person of his character, as in epic poetry. Mimetic poetry may also differ according to the object of imitation. In this respect, tragedy differs from comedy in that it makes its characters better rather than worse. ‘Mimesis’, particularly, becomes a central term when Aristotle discusses the nature and function of art. In the Poetics, he defines tragedy as: ‘as an imitation of human action that is serious, complete and of a certain magnitude; in language embellished with every kind of artistic ornament, the various kinds being found in different parts of the play; it represents man in action rather than using narrative, through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotion’. Aristotle is interested in the form of imitation and goes on to consider plot, character, diction, thought, spectacle and song as constituting elements of a typical tragedy. The action of plot must be complete in itself with a proper beginning, middle and an end. All parts of action must be equally essential to the whole. Each part of the tragedy is imitation itself. Character in tragedy imitates the action of noble man who has to be a man of some social standing and personal reputation, but he has to be presented us in terms of his weaknesses because it is his weakness that will make his fall believable. Aristotle thinks that all types of art are mimetic but each may differ in the manner, means, and object of imitation. Music imitates in sound and rhythm, painting in color and poetry in action and word. Aristotle’s ‘mimesis’ does not refer to the imitation of Idea and appearances, like that of Plato. He argues that each area of knowledge is imitation in the sense that as a human being we all learn through imitation. However, he carefully makes a distinction between different kinds of knowledge. For instance, he claims that art and philosophy deal with different kind of truth; philosophy deals with concrete and absolute truth, whereas art deals with aesthetic and universal truth. The difference, for instance, between mimetic poetry and history is stated as ‘one writes about what has actually happened, while the other deals with what might happen’. Art, unlike science, doesn’t abstract universal form but imitates the form of individual things and unites the separate parts presenting what is universal and particular. Therefore, the function of poetry is not to portray what has happened but to portray what may have happened in accord with the principle of probability and necessity. Since poetry deals with universal truth, history considers only particular facts; poetry is more philosophical and deserves more serious attention. In addition, aesthetic representation of reality is not technical, factual, philosophical, and historical. Aristotle compares aesthetic process (mimesis) with the process that takes place in nature. While nature moves through internal principles, art moves through organic principles like plot, action, characters, diction, and there is a unity among them. In a sense, art imitates nature and the deficiencies of nature are supplemented in the process of imitation, and art follows the same method, as nature would have employed. Thus, ‘if a house were natural product, it would pass through the same stages that in fact it passes through when it is produced by art, they would move along the same lines the natural process actually takes’. Poets, like nature, are capable of creating matter and form. The origin of nature is nature itself and the origin of art is the artist and the defining characteristic of the artist is the ability to create, through imitation, as nature does. The artist constructs the plot as an organizing principle, character constitutes the relation and carries on the action and style gives pleasure. For instance, the plot of tragedy and Dionysian rituals display similar organization. The rituals begin with the spring, which is a striking and beautiful time of the year, and they represent the strength of gods and nature upon primitive society. Tragedy, like the image of spring, has a striking and fascinating beginning and, like ritual, a tragic play pervades and shapes the feelings of the audiences. Dionysian ritual is a sacrifice of human being for gods and nature in the hope for a better and peaceful beginning. Similarly, the tragic hero is symbolically sacrificed after which there appears a peace. Then, the poet takes tragedy, as a mimetic representation of myth, from the natural course of an event that takes place in nature and reorganizes it. In this sense, ‘mimesis’ designates the imitation and the manner in which, as in nature, creation takes place. Mimesis, as Aristotle takes it, is an active aesthetic process. He argues that ‘imitation is given us by nature and men are endowed with these gifts, gradually develop them and finally create the art of poetry’. The poet does not imitate reality but brings reality into existence through ‘mimesis’. The poet recreates and reorganizes already known facts and presents them in a fresh and attractive way; therefore, though audiences know the story of Sophocles’ Oedipus, they go and watch it. The reality as presented to us through ‘mimesis’ is superior and universal not only because we are pleased to learn through imitation but also because such reality is better. Homer, for instance, depicts Achilles not only as a bad character but also depicts his goodness. Mimesis is thus copying and changing. The poet creates something that previously did not exist and for which there are no available models. Even in dealing with historical materials, the poet needs to fashion it in accord with his art rising to a higher level than is found in reality. Art is fictitious but the mimetic and aesthetic nature of art pervades the fictitious deviation and a work of art forces the thing to appear as something more beautiful and better than that nature and human being posses in common, ‘for it is always writer’s duty to make world better’. It can be argued that Aristotle defines and argues about art with respect to ‘mimesis’, and the concept of imitation in Aristotle is an aesthetic matter. Mimesis is not only ‘origin of art but also a distinguishing quality of man, since imitation is natural to mankind from childhood on’; in addition ‘all men find pleasure in imitation’. He claims that there are ‘things that distress us when we see them in reality, but the most accurate representation of these same things we view with pleasure. In this sense, catharsis is not a moral and psychological matter but a natural end of the aesthetic act as Salkaver discusses below: Fear and pity are dangerous emotions: painful and troubled feelings arise from the imagination of an imminent evil and cause destruction and pain. Pity, in particular, is a kind of pain upon seeing deadly or painful evil happening to one who does not deserve. However, in the representation of such feelings one feels empathy and gets rid of them. So, a work of art gives a man an opportunity to get rid of painful and troubled feelings arising from the imagination of an imminent evil that may cause destruction and pain on the part of the citizen. Aristotle develops a consistent theory of art upon the concept of imitation. He begins saying that all human actions are imitation, then, he focuses on poetry and other areas of studies like history and philosophy. Lastly, he dwells on the poet and the concept of imitation as taken and practiced by playwrights. All his arguments upon ‘mimesis’ are, both in general and in specific sense, have aesthetics quality, since he does not take imitation as social, moral or political phenomena but as an activity of the artist. CONCLUSION Plato’s main concern is with the public recitation of dramatic and epic poetry and in Plato there is emulation between philosophy and poetry. The poet influences the character of the young in every way and has corruptive impact upon the education of the young mind. In addition, poets don’t have a true knowledge of the things. Plato suggests that the emotional appeal is a threat to reason, that mimetic art is remote from reality, that the poet is not serious and knows nothing about poetry and cannot give satisfactory information about his art. It is obvious that he resists the concept of imitation in the case of poetic composition. Tragedy, in particular, and poetry, in general are concerned with pleasure rather than instruction and since it is not possible to imitate a wise and quiet person in the play, since such a person does not fit the content of tragedy, ‘mimesis’ is ethically distracting. Therefore, the function of various discussions of mimetic art in the Republic is ethical: wherever he mentions art he discusses it in relation to education and ethics. Although Aristotle agrees with Plato that poetry has the power to stimulate emotions, he does not pay much attention to the ethical and epistemological aspects of ‘mimesis’. Yet he dwells on the pleasure that men take in learning and argues that tragedy discharges the feelings and spectators leave the play in a state of calm, free of passions. He does not restrict art and poetry and the concept of ‘mimesis’. Aristotle’s ‘mimesis’ is defined by mythos and praxis’, which brings the concept close to areas of time and action- in contrast to Platonic ‘mimesis’, which is closer to image, imagination and imitation. He argues that tragedy is the imitation (mimesis) of a man in action. Aristotle’s ‘mimesis’ is active and creative; and he gives a dynamic character to ‘mimesis’ by introducing mythos and praxis, thus, defines art as ‘mimesis’ and the artist as character. Plato worries about the moral effect of poetry, while Aristotle strikes to psychology and returns repeatedly to shuddering terror (phobos) and pity (eleos) that the tragedy is creating in the spectator, who therefore repeats or imitates what has already taken place on stage. Plato argues that there is a duality between art (mimesis and narrative art) and ethics. The more poetic the poems are the less suited are they to the ears of men. Artistically, the better the comedy is, the worst it is, since the more attractive and perfect the comedy is the more disastrous its effects are. For instance, Homer, in the â€Å"Iliad† tells us or narrates the story of cypresses, as he was himself a cypress. He tells the story as far as it makes the audience feel that not Homer is the speaker, but the priest, an old man. This manner of representation (impersonation), according to Plato, leads to the loss-of-self or transformation of identity and becomes a matter of moral destruction. Aristotle takes the same activity of impersonation in a different way. He praises Homer for not telling excessively in his own voice since, after a few words he immediately brings on stage a man or woman or some other characters that represent the action with larger perspective. As a conclusion, ‘mimesis’ has since the antiquity been discussed to refer to the relation between reality and representation. The nature of discussion upon the concept of ‘mimesis’ as a theory of art changes according to the person who discusses the term and the way he deals with the term. Auerbach, for instance, distinguishes the reality and ‘mimesis’ in literature with respect to the narrative techniques and argues that Homeric epic is not mimetic but realistic since; narration of the tales comprehends every detail and leaves no space for interpretation. Plato, on the other hand, agrees that reality cannot be represented; therefore, ‘mimesis’ is misrepresentation of truth. Aristotle becomes the defender of ‘mimesis’ against Plato and develops a theory of art with reference to ‘mimesis’ and claims that art (mimetic art) is superior to philosophy and histpry.

Peter Tosh: a Pioneer of Reggae and Trailblazing Rastafarian

Peter Tosh: A Pioneer of Reggae and Trailblazing Rastafarian Peter Tosh was not only an incredible Reggae musician, but an incredible person as well. He had a history of doing his part to help those in need of help, fighting for those who were unable to fight for themselves. Tosh, a pioneer of the Rastafari movement, would lead the people of Jamaica through his selfless actions and his music. Peter Tosh, born Winston Hubert McIntosh, was born in Westmoreland, Jamaica on October 9, 1944 to parents, Alvera Coke and James McIntosh. Tosh’s father would have nothing to do with his upbringing or even acknowledge that Tosh was his son.In fact, they would not even meet until Tosh was ten years old. His mother, unable to care for Tosh herself, asked her sister to raise him, which she did in Savanna-la-Mar, Jamaica. Due to the feeling of rejection that this placed inside of him, Tosh grew up extremely self-reliant and independent, which would help him later on in his fight for his peopl e. During the time of his upbringing, life in Jamaica was extremely difficult. Jobs were scarce and money even more so. The majority of families were struggling to make ends meet, scrounging for money and building supply scraps to keep roofs over their heads.Jamaica’s government was extremely corrupt and the wealthier, land-owning class was taking advantage of those less fortunate. Tosh recognized this and would later become a modern day Robin Hood, using his presence in the public eye to his advantage by speaking on behalf of his fellow Jamaicans to raise awareness on the issue. Tosh began playing music at a very young age, keeping him away from gang life. He had no formal training of any instrument, aside from six months of piano lessons when he was in fifth grade. Music was his passion and he excelled in it.Tosh moved to Trenchtown with his uncle after his aunt grew very ill and nearly died. It was here that Tosh would develop his musical talents and go on to form the most influential band in reggae history. Trenchtown, named because of the many trenches that ran through it carrying sewage waste away from Kingston, was filled with music. While walking through town one day, Tosh came across a guitarist by the name of Joe Higgs, among others, singing and playing in the street. During the jam session, he met a couple who were looking for other vocalists to join a group. The couple was impressed by Tosh’s guitar playing and his baritone voice. Johnson) The couple, Bob Marley and Bunny Livingston, and Tosh, who taught Bob Marley how to play guitar, would hold jam sessions in Higgs’ backyard. These sessions became more and more serious and would eventually lead to the forming of the influential ska-style band called the Wailing Wailers in 1964. The Wailers went on to record twelve albums including One Love, When the Well Runs Dry, and Simmer Down and released groundbreaking singles including ‘Stir it Up’, ‘Get Up, Stand Upà ¢â‚¬â„¢, and ‘Trenchtown Rock’. (http://reggaediscography. blogspot. com/2009/10/peter-tosh-discography. html) By 1966, the band began to fall apart.Marley had moved from Jamaica to the United States to pursue a solo career and Tosh was arrested and served a short stint in jail. By 1972, the Wailers would slowly diminish until they finally broke up. It would be absurd to speak of Peter Tosh and not mention the Rastafari movement, which he had begun to get heavily involved in by this time. The movement was founded in the slums of Kingston, Jamaica in the 1920’s and 1930’s by a man by the name of Marcus Garvey. (www. religionfacts. com) Garvey taught that Africans are the true Israelis and that Ethiopia, referred to as Zion, is the real holy land.He further proclaimed that Africans were exiled to Jamaica and other parts of the world outside of Africa (the America’s and Europe are referred to as Babylon) as a form of divine punishment. (ww. religionfac ts. com) In the 1930’s, peaceful communities had begun popping up in Kingston and Rastafarians began to adopt their own culture to include a distinctive dialect and hair style, and developed their own style of art and music. It was their music that would help spread the ideology of the Rastafari movement across the globe. The music of Bob Marley and Peter Tosh would become messengers of Jah (God) spreading the word throughout the world.After the Wailers went their separate ways, Tosh focused on a solo career. His first album, Legalize It, went public in 1976. The name of the album, as well as the title track, refers to his stance on the legalization of marijuana. Tosh believed that smoking marijuana was a path to enlightenment. It was a way for the working class of Jamaica to get relief from the stresses of life. He further believed that the government made marijuana illegal as a way of oppressing Jamaicans and keeping them in order. Tosh only wrote songs after he had smoked marijuana because he felt he could see clearly. (www. thetalkingdrum. com)By the time of the One Love Peace Concert of 1978, Jamaica was in the midst of a political civil war. The concert was held in an effort to set aside the differences of Jamaicans and promote peace, love, and harmony. Tosh took this concert, at which Bob Marley and the Wailers were headlining, as an opportunity to speak to the audience. Tosh bluntly put the government down, accusing them of using Jamaica and the people that lived there for their resources with little regard as to what would happen to them. He spoke his mind, as always, without caring who would hear. He spoke for the rights of his brothers and sisters of Jamaica.That concert was the first time that a person held in such high regards amongst the public had spoken out against the Jamaican government. It was at this moment that Peter Tosh became a heroic figure and a public rights leader. The high regard in which he was held by his peers would turn out to be a blessing and a curse. Four months after the One Love Peace Concert and his lecture against the Jamaican government, Tosh was brutally attacked by up to ten police officers and nearly died. This was the first of many attacks, both verbal and physical, but this is where Tosh wanted to be.He wanted to be the center of attention, not for his own ego but to be in a position to speak on behalf of his people. It was a way for him to voice their concerns and demand corrective action. The One Love Peace Concert not only boosted Tosh in the political eye, but would end up boosting his American musical career as well. Mick Jagger, of the Rolling Stones, was in the audience at the concert and would go on to sign Tosh under the Rolling Stones’ record label. Tosh would go on to release two albums under the label, Bush Doctor and Mystic Man. The short life of this relationship ended when Tosh felt he was not being promoted properly. www. talkingdrum. com) Two years after releasi ng Wanted Dread or Alive, Tosh had hit the pinnacle of his career in 1983, which was the time of his European tour promoting Mama Africa. These two albums would go on to become known as Tosh’s best work. (www. talkingdrum. com) While on this tour, Tosh appeared on stage with his signature M-16 [military assault rifle] guitar. The guitar was significant in the fact that it was a symbol for Tosh’s music being his weapon against the corrupt politicians and evils in the world. (www. talkingdrum. com) His concerts were more than just music. They were spiritually enlightening and informative.It was not uncommon for Tosh to set aside some time during a show to talk to the audience about his views on the evils of the world. Despite the public being supportive of Tosh and his cause, he was murdered by three assailants on September 11, 1987. Record has it that three men, one of whom Tosh knew and tried to help find work after a term in jail, had approached him at his home demand ing money. When Tosh replied that he had none, he was shot three times. The assailant that Tosh knew turned himself in to the authorities, while the other two were never found. The story of the robbery, however, remains under scrutiny.According to reports, nothing from Tosh’s home was missing. The three men who went there to rob him took nothing. Many speculate that it was a hit to forever silence Tosh and his outspoken ways. From the moment he was born, it seems Peter Tosh was destined to live the life he did. He was a man with many admirable qualities, most importantly the courage to speak up for those who were not in a position to do it themselves in effort to better the lives of his fellow Jamaicans. He was a pioneer for the Rastafari movement and a prominent figure in the development of Reggae music, forming it into the shape it holds today.  

Deadly Unna Essay

Within the pages of the novel Deadly Unna by Phillip Gwynne we are taken on a journey to a highly racist and bigoted town. Through the eyes of a young teenage boy, we see the world how he does and we experience the division and racism in this corrupt town. In the book, the two races are strongly divided and we can see this clearly in the local bar. The front bar is for the goonyas and the back bar is for the nungas. Nungas are not allowed to be in the front bar with the goonyas, they are not allowed to drink with them. Although the division in the bar is not direct racism, it still leaves a large impression on the reader. In the back bar, there is a serving window for the nungas to buy their drinks, there are no seats at the bar like in the front. â€Å"Back bar or black bar as everybody called it,† (page 156). The back bar is called black bar because that is where all the nungas are permitted to be, not up the front like normal people, like animals at the back. Although the nungas play for the football team, the racial division is even spread in the change rooms. The may not have been a rule in place that the nungas got changed at one end of the rooms and the goonyas at the other, it still came out that way. â€Å"Nungas got changed at one end and us Goonyas at the other. There was no rule or anything; it was just the way it was.† (Page 21) Even though the town allows nungas to play on their football team, they are still classed as unwelcome in the Port. â€Å"boongs piss off  Ã¢â‚¬  is written on the jetty shed. The word â€Å"boong† is a derogatory term that the aboriginals are referred to. â€Å"Everywhere you look boongs piss off, boongs piss off, boongs piss off. Everywhere,† (page 257) the crude saying is written everywhere in The Port making it clear that nungas are not welcome in this part of town. The goonyas part of the town. At the end of the novel, Blacky and his siblings, paint over the sign â€Å"boongs piss off  Ã¢â‚¬  that is on the jetty shed, showing that they are not as racist and narrow minded as the rest of the town, their decision may not be agreed with, but they are standing up for what they think is right, proving that nungas should be accepted, not discriminated against. Not only is this town racist, but it is also filled with sexism, majority of the men and teenage boys do not believe that women are their equals. Mr Robertson will not take advice from Gwen Black (Blacky’s mother) because she is a woman, even if she was a â€Å"tactical genius†. â€Å"Everybody thought that to be a great coach you had to be a great player. And a bloke, of course,† (page 32). Pickles is also sexist, he dislikes Cathy (a camper) squidding with Blacky and himself, he believes that it is a man’s job. â€Å"Girls and squid, according to him didn’t go together,† (page 181). Blacky’s father is also sexist, he is always down at the pub drinking or going out fishing while his wife Gwen is at home cooking and cleaning for her family.

Common social-political barriers corporate aviation operators confront Research Paper

Common social-political barriers corporate aviation operators confront when attempting to enter foreign markets - Research Paper Example The corporate aviation industry can help in the economic development of an entire region or a particular industry such as tourism. But it is also dependent on the latent demand for goods and services. Thus lack of air transport can stymie the economic growth and lead to excesses or inappropriateness in supply. The corporate aviation industry can thus shape the speed and form of globalization and the related processes. With increasing globalization, the air aviation industry is trying to invest in foreign countries to expand their bases. But such a strategy has many ramifications such as migration of labor. Thus corporate aviation needs to carefully strategize its choices so that they can achieve operational efficiency. The research problem given is analysis of common social-political barriers which corporate aviation operators face when they attempt to enter foreign markets. With increasing globalization, the national economies have integrated with each other. This has led to flow of trade, capital flows, foreign direct investment, and spread of technology and capital flows. The business aviation industry is an important part of the aviation industry since it caters to the premium segment of the aviation industry. Everything which corporate aviation does basically depends on time and is driven on flexibility. The globalization of trade, supply-chaining, political forces and outsourcing have changed the world for better and worse. In the process of investment in foreign countries a corporate aviation company needs to analyze carefully the political and social factors. This research paper focuses on the social-political barriers which they will face. The corporate aviation industry is a highly protected and regulated one, and it is done with the intention of utilizing it as a lever for attaining larger economic and political objectives. Initially there was no such demand for such an industry, but

The Life and Music of Johann Strauss II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

The Life and Music of Johann Strauss II - Essay Example From among the hundreds of musical compositions that Johann Strauss II created, his most famous work was identified to be the Blue Danube, categorized as â€Å"the most widely played and arranged pieces of its time, known to the most casual listener today from many radio, film and television uses of it†. A countdown of his musical scores generated this profile: â€Å"150 waltzes, one hundred polkas, seventy quadrilles (square dances), mazurkas (folk dances from Poland), marches, and galops (French dances)†. Johann was noted to be the king of waltz or the waltz king.His music was also noted to belong to the classical genre and assuming the orchstral and opera style. In fact, a total of more than 500 orchestral compositions were attributed to his name. Likewise, Johann Strauss II was known to have popularized both light music and dance music, both musical genres and styles that gave way to less serious form of classical music intended for an audience for the purpose of da ncing the waltz, or to put them in the right mood to listen to a concert-type of music. Since Johann’s compositions were predominantly orchestral or opera in style, the musical accompaniment was composed of a variety of musical instruments chosen appropriately to create the intended mood: for dancing, for easy listening, to appreciate a particular musical instrument: cello, the piano, or the whole orchestra. He has also composed selections of best classical music of his time; concert music, music of the opera, and favorite dance music attributed to the Strauss family, to name just a few.From among the famous operettas noted to be composed by Johann Strauss II, the following were detailed: â€Å"Die Fledermaus, is probably one of the greatest operettas ever written and a masterpiece of its kind. The lovely Du und Du waltz is made up of excerpts from this work. His two other most successful operettas were A Night in Venice (1883), from which he derived the music for the Lagoon Waltz, and The Gypsy Baron (1885), from which stems the Treasure Waltz†.... Music of Johann Strauss II From among the hundreds of musical compositions that Johann Strauss II created, his most famous work was identified to be the Blue Danube (An der schonen blauen Donau), categorized as â€Å"the most widely played and arranged pieces of its time, known to the most casual listener today from many radio, film and television uses of it† (Rovi Corp, 2013, par. 1). A countdown of his musical scores generated this profile: â€Å"150 waltzes, one hundred polkas, seventy quadrilles (square dances), mazurkas (folk dances from Poland), marches, and galops (French dances)† (Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2013, par. 9). Johann was noted to be the king of waltz or the waltz king (The Johann Strauss Society of Great Britain, 2013; Encyclopedia of World Biography, 2013). His music was also noted to belong to the classical genre and assuming the orchstral and opera style (Rovi Corp, 2013). In fact, a total of more than 500 orchestral compositions were attrib uted to his name (The Johann Strauss Society of Great Britain, 2013). Likewise, Johann Strauss II was known to have popularized both light music and dance music, both musical genres and styles that gave way to less serious form of classical music intended for an audience for the purpose of dancing the waltz, or to put them in the right mood to listen to a concert-type of music. Since Johann’s compositions were predominantly orchestral or opera in style, the musical accompaniment were composed of a variety of musical instruments chosen appropriately to create the intended mood: for dancing, for easy listening, to appreciate a particular musical instrument: cello, the piano, or the whole orchestra. He has also composed selections of best classical music of his time; concert music, music of the opera, and

Organizational Culture in Different Countries and Regions Term Paper

Organizational Culture in Different Countries and Regions - Term Paper Example Taken negatively, this culture can be used as a shield and process that people withdraw to when they intend to sideline their common sense. It is a form of groupthink or herd mentality that could be used to shrug responsibility (Savio, 2007). But when properly understood, the barriers of cultural differences can come down and the authenticity of the people emerges transcending the old collective and herd thinking enabling one to find homogeneity and common ground to do business. But understanding the eccentricity or idiosyncrasy of a particular culture can be a challenge and may even take some time to be understood and perhaps after committing some blunders and faux pas that could cost the business itself. Seemingly innocuous behaviors, when not properly understood can be costly to the one doing the business who is unaware of the national culture that is being reflected in the bigger organization. To illustrate, a businessperson attending a dinner by a Chinese host may be aware that he has to be gracious being familiar of guanxi(Hwang, 2009). But knowing the host or Chinese counterpart is not enough (Bedford, 2011). Little things such as not following the nuances of dining protocols may even inadvertently offend the business counterpart. In the example cited, the guest, in his effort to be gracious to his host, ate every food that was served to him (there are 12 courses in a Chinese meal) even if he was full with the hope of getting the impression that he i s an appreciative guest. Only to be confounded that the host’s warmth disappeared and turned cold as the evening ended. It took some time for the guest to realize that in Chinese context, cleaning up your plate meant that the host did not feed you enough and that is quite offensive in doing business in Chinese context (Balderrama, 2010). Another example is the customary bringing of whisky to a Japanese counterpart which can be considered as a thoughtful gift but is offensive to Dubai nationals (Tulshyan, 2010). To better understand particular cultures and how they reflect and differ in the larger culture of an organization in different countries, Hoftstede formulated a cultural assessment tool whereby dimensions of one’s cultural strength can be assessed by assigning a scale ranging from 0 to 100 (Hoftstede, n.d.) . This tool of Hofstede is a popular tool among managers who would like to understand another culture apart from their own. The five cultural dimensions of P ower Distance, Individualism, Masculinity, Uncertainty Avoidance, and Long-Term Orientation; Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture in details are (MCCULLIGH, 2010); Small vs. large power distance – This refers to how a society handles inequalities and the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally. Individualism vs. collectivism  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ Behavior towards community. The degree to which individuals are integrated into groups or are expected to look after themselves and self-actualize. Masculinity vs. femininity)

The Cultural, social and economic townscape of Kings Lynn Research Paper

The Cultural, social and economic townscape of Kings Lynn - Research Paper Example Business activities developed around the waterways which stretched to the land from Lynn. The town developed and occupied the space between Purfleet River to the north and Millfleet River to the south. A period of expansion started in the late 12th century in Britain with broader streets and a larger market place. This Medieval town is the second between the Gaywood River and Purfleet. Bishop’s Lynn became rich on trade within Britain and abroad. The Hanseatic League was a German business organization comprising of merchants from Northern Germany and surrounding countries around Baltic Sea. After Henry VIII dissolving the monasteries, Lynn changed the name and became Lynn Regis and then later on was called King’s Lynn which has remained a very active port in the modern era. The town has been doing well with a strong industrial tradition and revolution. It has been an international trade centre back from the 12th century. However, several changes have been noted in the town’s economy. The Gross Value Added per capita has been forecasted to be below county values from 2001 to 2007 and the gap is increasing significantly. The productivity of labour has consistently been below county value from the year 2001 to 2007. In the years 2002 and 2003 a drop in labour productivity in the town was noted. (Great Britain, 2007) 2) The agricultural sector has been greatly boosted in Eastern England especially in Norfolk. The Agri-Tech Initiative has so far invested around 1.4 million pounds in local activities. Several businesses and projects have been funded in an attempt to improve the economy of King’s Lynn town and Norfolk at large. The Foster-Clarke Company based in Norfolk deals in agriculture, both arable and livestock. The funding will help in investigating new techniques of monitoring the health of crops by combining imaging techniques and light spectrums. The research aims at helping farmers to boost

Operation Management and control Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Operation Management and control - Essay Example For variables control a circuit voltage will be measured based on a sample of only five circuits. The past average voltage for samples of size 5 has been 3.1 volts, and the range has been 1.2 volts. Control charts can indicate when the adjustments are necessary and when they are not. To determine the natural range or control limits of a process and to compare it to its specified limits. If the range of the control limits is wider or higher than the one of the specified limits, the production process will need to be accustomed to inform about the process capabilities and stability. Samples need to be taken on a controlled regular basis and tested to make sure that the quality is acceptable. References: Clarkson, Elizabeth. "A Process Control Primer" February 24, 2000 from: http://members.cox.net/bethclarkson/Articles/ControlCharts.html Bass, Issa. "Control Charts" Sixsigmafirst Group, Inc.2005 from: http://www.sixsigmafirst.com/controlcharts1.htm

Amazon web services Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Amazon web services - Case Study Example The biggest benefit of this strategy was its potency to attract a large number of customers and thus build a huge customer base for the company. Amazon believed that by building scale, it could lower the bandwidth and hardware costs in the long run. The demerit of this pricing model was that it did not guarantee a certain amount of revenue from any customer. Some of the AWS customers paid less than $1 to the company. The AWS services have been pretty successful and hold a lot of promise for the future. On the face of it, AWS appears to be a diversion from Amazon’s core business; however in reality this is not the case. Since inception, Amazon has invested heavily in technology and its core competencies lie in the back end operations. To that extent, AWS is a perfect fit for Amazon’s skill sets. Since AWS was a front runner in the ‘cloud’ services, Amazon derived the first-mover advantage as well. It is recommended that Amazon broadens the customer base for the AWS services. Till date the company has been primarily relying on developers. It needs to rope in corporate customers given the fact that other technology behemoths like Microsoft and IBM are developing similar

Comcast Corporation and its Vision Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Comcast Corporation and its Vision - Assignment Example One of the companies which has formulated and implemented its vision is Comcast Corporation. Comcast Corporation was established in the year 1963. It offers the following services in the broadcasting, pay TV and internet provision: VoIP phone, Cable television, Theme parks, Broadband internet, Sports franchising, Home Security Systems, Radio broadcasting, Motion pictures, Television broadcasting. The vision of this company is ‘As Comcast evolves, we continue to look to the future - seeking out new communications technology, new opportunities, and more choices. We want to continue to provide people with the communications products and services that connect them to what’s important in their lives.’From Brooks Barnesaug’s article ‘Comcast invests by the Billion in Theme Parks, Hogwarts and All’ published it is evidenced that Comcast Corporation not only has a smart vision, but has been implementing it to the latter. The expansionist strategies of the company especially in theme parks clearly shows that it is indeed committed to creating a brighter future, looking for and exploring new opportunities, high-tech innovations as well as choices aimed at exclusively satisfying the diverse needs of its clientele. There are many organizations which, despite having smart visions, do not bother about implementing them in order to optimize their available opportunities. As recounted by Brooks’ in its article, the company has spent a lot of resources to fulfill its vision.

Staffing Organization Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Staffing Organization - Assignment Example Lastly, I will propose the types of initial and substantive assessment methods, and identify predictors used to assess KSAOs. 1. Formulate a recruitment plan and strategy that will be used to staff the coffee shop initially and throughout the next three (3) years. A recruitment strategy ensures that business goals are attained. It is referred to as a roadmap that guides business personnel on best methods of hiring quality employees. In formulating recruitment strategy for Gourmet Coffee Shop, the first plan that I will use to staff the coffee shop in the next three years is job description. It involves finding out detailed information on the kind of post that applicants need to occupy (Jex, 2002). Workers always have the tendency knowing the type vacancies advertised before they think of applying for the job. Job description also involves job specification, which is an elucidation of the credentials, familiarity and personal aspects required by a candidate. Methods such as promoting initial employees within the Coffee shop ensure that a business preserves and encourages hard working employees. The process of promoting staffs within has significant advantages since they are used to the working environment. Furthermore, another method is referral, in which staff members are expected to bring in new qualified recruits to the business. The strategy is cheap since it reduces the recruitment cost, involves current employees, motivates staff, and decreases time spent in hiring. Other methods that can be used are inside headhunt, looking for resume databases or hiring an outside employee service. The second strategy is screening and evaluation of the job applicants. This process leads to short-listing process that involves getting qualified members of the team and removing those that have failed to achieve the interview requirements. Lastly, the final strategy to apply is documentation of the recruited staff members. This will assist in tracking the qualified applicant s, hence making it easy to monitor their work for the successful running if the coffee shop (Bechet, 2008). The documentation will act as a source of evidence proving that the recruitment was a fair process to evade conflict and misunderstandings. 2. Create a communication message (realistic, brand, or targeted) to attract applicants to the open positions. I will create a brand communication message to attract applicant for the open positions, and ensure that has the ability for sustainability, self-selection and business growth (Davis, 2010). Gourmet Coffee Shop offers unique and quality coffee and extra fast foods that are prepared by experts. Coffee is the major product served by the shop to its customers and is prepared exceptionally for the targeted students and lectures of the nearby college. Employees will obtain free job training for an outstanding and quality services offered to customers by working for the coffee shop. Consequently, the strategic location of the Gourmet Co ffee Shop makes it an ever busy shop. Furthermore, the coffee shop is an employer’s choice because of its considerate salary it offers to staff members, unlike other coffee shop that pays its workers small amount of money. Gourmet Coffee Shop recognizes the hard work and effort put by its workers by rewarding them by issuing out promotions and bonuses. 3. Select the communication medium for the recruitment effort and explain why that method was chosen over others. I will use is social media as a communication

Why Do Sunnis (Taliban) Hate Shias Essay Example for Free

Why Do Sunnis (Taliban) Hate Shias Essay Taliban the worlds most extreme and radical Islamic organization that inspires fascination, controversy, and especially fear in both the Muslim world and the West has been brought into sharp focus in Ahmed Rashids book Taliban. This enormously insightful book gives an account of Talibans rise to power, its impact on Afghanistan and the Central Asian region. The book also analyzes the wider regional and geopolitical implications of the Talibans advent to power and the role that Taliban has to play in oil and gas companies decisions. The author also discusses about the changing attitudes of various countries like America and Saudi Arabia towards Taliban and its effects on Afghanistan. The word Taliban has been derived from the term talib, which means a student of an Islamic seminary. These seminaries have existed for thousands of years and Islamic boys have gone to these schools to study the Koran, Islamic law, in order to become preachers. The Taliban took this name because it is a symbol of Islam, and a symbol of doing good, and bringing people around to an Islamic viewpoint, and imposing law and order. It was a name that was initially welcomed by the Afghan people. To understand the enmity between the Hazaras and Iran and the Taliban it is very important to clarify here that the Hazars and Iranians are Shias while the Taliban are mostly Sunnis. And for me, the main reason why the Taliban hate Hazaras and Iran and why Iran and Hazaras hate Taliban is because of the one mentioned above. The enmity between the Sunni Pashtuns and the Shia Hazaras goes a long way but the Taliban brought a new edge to the conflict for they treated all the Shias as hypocrites and beyond the pale of true Islam. The earliest clashes between the Shia Hazaras and the Sunni Pashtuns can be traced all the way back to 1893 about 100 years before the creation of the Taliban. Pashtun king Abdul Rehman, who initiated the first anti-Hazara program, killing thousands of Hazars, moving thousands more to Kabul where they lived as serfs and servants, and destroying their mosques (Rashid 68). The first most important event that soiled the reputation of the Taliban in  the eyes of the Hazaras, and their main patron Iran was the controversial death of the Hazara leader, Abdul Ali Mazari while in Taliban custody. Masud, the Mujaheddin leader launched a surprise attack against the Hazaras, sending tanks into Kabuls southern suburbs, smashing the Hazaras and driving them out of Kabul. In desperation the Hazars cut a deal with the advancing Taliban, yielding their arms and their positions to them. But while in the custody of Taliban the Hazara leader died. The Hazaras contest that he was pushed out of a helicopter, because he tried to grab a rifle when he was being taken to Kandahar as a prisoner. But the Taliban continue to deny their involvement in it and continue to say that it was an accident. The death of Mazari, accidental or intentional was one of the first events that soiled the reputation of the Taliban in the eyes of the Hazars (Radhid 35). There have been numerous clashes between the Hazaras and the Taliban. Probably one of the most significant clashes that took place between the Hazaras and the Taliban was in 1997. Malik who was the second in command to Dostum betrayed Dostum when a feud broke out between them. Malik went to the Taliban and asked them to help him oust Dostum. This was just the opportunity that Taliban had been waiting for. Together with Dostum and his few accomplices Taliban attacked Dostum on 19 May 1997. This created an unrest within his ranks, and soon a group of 2500 heavily armed Taliban men entered Mazara. The Taliban troops, most of whom had never been to the north before, arrogantly started disarming the fierce Hazara troops, took over mosques where they declared the imposition of the Sharia law, shut down schools and drove women off the streets. This of course created a lot anti-Taliban feeling amongst the Mazars. On 28 May 1997, when a squabble broke out because group of Hazaras were resisting disarmament, hell broke out. First Mazars Hazaras then the rest of the population rose in revolt. Untrained in street fighting and not knowing the maze of city alleyways, the Taliban were easy victims as they drove their pickups drove right into dead ends. Within 15 hours some 600 Taliban soldiers were massacred and 1000 more were at the airport as they were tried to flee. Soon Malik organized his troops and then took control of four northern provinces, which the Taliban had captured. The remaining Taliban troops were either shot dead or buried in mass graves. Encouraged by this, Masud recaptured the territory that had  fallen to the Taliban just a week before. Thousands of more Taliban were either killed or captured. Meanwhile the Hazaras, spurred on by the Mazar victory also counter attacked, breaking the nine month Taliban siege of their homeland, Hazarajat. It was one of the worst defeats of the Taliban with over 3000 casualties, killed or wounded, and some 3600 men were taken as prisoners (Rahid 58-59). This sort of massacre of the Taliban left a permanent dent in the minds of the Taliban and made them even more anti Hazaras than they already were. The Taliban responded to this brutal massacre of their forces, in 1998. It was on 12 July when it all began, the Taliban swept northwards after sweeping Dostums forces. They later moved on as they bribed the Uzbek officials who were guarding the western road into Mazar, leaving the 1500 Hazara force susceptible to a sudden attack. It came in the early hours of 8 August 1998, when the Hazara force found them to be surrounded. They fought till their ammunition lasted and then it happened. Taliban soldiers entered Mazara on an unsuspecting public. What followed was a brutal massacre, as the Taliban took revenge of their losses from the previous year. The killing went on for days. The Taliban went on a frenzy, killing and shooting everyone they saw including children and women. Then the Taliban went into the houses of Hazaras and massacred entire families. Bodies were not given proper burial and were left to rot for days on the streets. Although it was impossible to get a correct body count but it was estimated that 5000 to 6000 people were killed in the massacre (Rashid 72-73). Once in control of the north the Taliban aimed to cleanse the north of the Shias. Shias were given three choices convert to Sunni Islam, leave for Shia Iran or die. All prayers services that were conducted by the Shia in mosques were banned. The Taliban governor general of Mazar, Mullah Niazi declared The Hazaras are not Muslims and now we have to kill the Hazaras. Wherever you go we will catch you. If you go up we will pull you down by your feet; if you hide below, we will pull you up by your hair. This clearly shows us that the hate between the two main groups of Muslims had reached a new level which was based on pure hate and abhorrence (Rahid 74). The Talibans brutal treatment of the Shia Hazaras made Iran which is a Shia country very anti-Taliban. Iran became very critical of the Taliban and tried to stop their movement at every step. They supported anti-Taliban alliances and started interfering in the politics of Afghanistan. They funded many leaders and many kings who were anti-Taliban in a desperate attempt of restricting Talibans advancements. Iran declared publicly that it would support any anti-Taliban alliance and appealed to Russia, India and the Central Asian states to help them also. In fact Iran was flying 22 flights a day to Mazar carrying arms. The reaction of this sort of support of Iran to any anti-Taliban alliance was that the Taliban officials were furious and accused Iran of supporting the opposition and grew even more hostile to Iran (Rashid 61). One of the most significant events that permanently damaged the reputation of the Taliban before Iran was the fall of Baimyan. Taliban occupied Baimyan and destroyed nearly 2000 year old Bhudda statues there. Iran responded to this by organizing a military exercise of some seventy thousand men, backed by guns and tanks along the Iran-Afghanistan border. This was followed by some 200,000 Iranian troops that were placed along the Iran-Afghanistan border. The Taliban also mobilized some 5000 fighters to prevent the Iranian invasion. Tensions between Iran and Taliban subsided when the UN Security Council sent Lakhdar Brahimi and met Mullah Omar (Rashid 76). In conclusion, I would like to say that Taliban has been a very interesting and fascinating book. In the end everyone comes out looking bad, in this book. Every nation, every economic faction, and every ethnic group acts purely out of short-term self interest without worrying about the people of Afghanistan, whose lives they were damaging. The United States firstly supports Taliban and then tries to eliminate them because they had lost interest in the Taliban regime and it no longer served their (United States) propose. Even Iran interfered in the life and politics of Afghanistan because they wanted to save the Shias there. They never really cared for the other factions of the Afghan population. Even Pakistan and Saudi Arabia interfered in Afghanistan because they wanted to protect the interests of the Sunnis there, and even they did not care about any other factions of the  Afghan population there. I think that before we can even start thinking of a secular and a peaceful Afghanistan, it is very important for all outside governments to stop interfering in the life and the politics of Afghanistan. I think that another reason why Afghanistan is so intolerant of other religions and cultures is because they are forced to be intolerant of other religions and cultures. Like the Sunnis have to be intolerant of the Shias and be brutal to them otherwise they will not be able to impress the Pakistan and the Saudi government which will result in a cut of their donations. For once the people of Afghanistan should once feel that they are independent and that they do not have to work under some government. Also, while I do say that there should be no foreign influence in the politics and the life of Afghanistan, I would also say that foreign governments have to make an honest effort to develop Afghanistan. Governments have to see to it that they make sure that they are developing entire Afghanistan and not just the people they support, because then it will lead to the same situation that we have right now. The whole of Afghanistan needs to feel united; and if only one group develops and the other does not then it will lead to enmity and jealousy between the two groups. Also, by being economically self-sufficient Afghanistan will not be susceptible to foreign influence because they will not be dependent on other countries for aid and loans. And if Afghanistan is not developed then it will lead to a big black hole which will just reach out and take the whole world with it. Which can range from illegal trade across the borders to cheap drugs on American streets to the bombings of the WTC.

The Montessori Method early childhood

The Montessori Method early childhood Introduction The Montessori Method was conceived in the early 1900s by Dr Maria Montessori, and was developed as an alternative method of early childhood learning. (Stevens, (n.d.) Montessori centres became established and recognised internationally including within Aotearoa NZ. Basic to Montessori is the premise that children are deemed individuals and need to be understood and given the freedom to be guided or directed through the system as opposed to being instructed. Learning should be determined by, and adapt to the needs, as they change through childhood. (Chattin-McNichols, 1992) Emphasis is placed on the use of specific equipment and other designated resources. The whole environment of a Montessori centre is designed to capture interest and lead to self learning, self discipline and fulfilment of a childs potential. (Montessori, 1912) As with other countries, a sociocultural aspect has been introduced here, and along with the introduction of Te WhÄ riki, brings modifications to the original dogma. Although long controversial, the method is in demand as a valid means of alternative education and a wide variety of literature presents a valuable source of theoretical and practical knowledge. (Shuker, 2004) Background Early years Maria Montessori (1870 1953). She graduated as a doctor of medicine with honours in 1896 from the University of Rome. Her CV in the following few years included research work at a psychiatric clinic where her interest in children was sparked. She studied the works of academics and practitioners such as Seguin, Rousseau, and Froebel and undertook courses in anthropology, philosophy and psychology. Tests and experiments in the 1900s at a school for the retarded children successfully helped develop her theories. This was followed in 1907 with the successful application of her methods at a new school in the slums of Rome. With success came global fame and acclaim for her and her system, followed by the establishment of centres globally. (Hainstock, 1997) Montessori in NZ In Aotearoa New Zealand, Montessori started in 1912, continuing till the 1950s when there was a decline. A revival started in 1975 continuing to this day. (Shuker, 2004) Montessori terminology A few examples of Montessori terminology integral to the system are as follows: didactic materials, discovery of the child, liberty, normalised child, order, prepared environment and sensorial exercises. (Hainstock, 1997) Overview Purpose The essence and essential purpose of Montessori is well encapsulated in the following statement. If young people are to meet the challenge of survival that faces them today, it is imperative that their education develop to the fullest extent possible for their potential for creativity, initiative, independence, inner discipline and self confidence. (Lillard, (1972) p. 138) Written in the 1970s, the statement is timeless in concept, being just as applicable today as it was then. Environment Montessori believed that the most important factors in achieving her ideal concept were the environment and the teachers. Apart from being organised and free from clutter, the environment had to be supporting, encouraging and foster a self belief in the child that would reveal his personal attributes and interests. The indoor and outdoor environments provided activities that were meaningful learning experiences. This environment contained only resources and materials that were specifically made to Montessoris standards; chairs, tables, equipment, all made in regard to the childs size and strength. (Lillard, 1972) Two very important pieces of furniture that could not be done without were a long low cupboard for the resources, and a set of colourful drawers for the child to put their belongings in. (Montessori (1912) as cited in Shuker, 2004) Teachers role The role of the teacher is to be able to understand from observation, the childs individual learning needs and the changes in those needs as they occur. This leads to directing or facilitating, the childs interest in and use of the didactic materials, exercises and games. The teacher is simply a link and therefore needs to be Montessori trained so as to be knowledgeable in the use of all the materials, techniques and processes to be used. (Montessori, 1988) Curriculum delivery and content The delivery of the curriculum is fed through observations to five essential stages: practical life, sensorial education, language education, mathematics and the cultural area. The materials used in these areas all helped the childs perception using size, shape, volume, colour, pattern, odour, sound and texture. Later materials help the children in discoveries relating to mathematics, language and literacy, art, music, science, and social studies (Chisnall, 2008, web-based) The practical life experiences cover all the everyday routines and how to cope with them; tying shoelaces and opening and closing drawers. Sensorial education covers the use of the five senses: smell, touch, taste, sight and hearing. Language development encompasses reading and writing and learning how to use good speech. This area is closely attuned to the sensory training, for without knowing how to feel and hold a pencil; a child cannot learn how to write. The mathematics stage teaches the child the fundamental decimal system of counting up to and in groups of 10. The cultural aspect is shown through pictorial material, along with a globe of the world, puzzles and similar resources. (Hainstock, E.G. (1968) Discussion There are few similarities between a Montessori Method and a traditional mainstream approach while the differences are many. Some examples of both are as follows: Similarities Montessori believed that each child is unique with a potential that needs releasing. (Montessori, 1912) The Te WhÄ riki Curriculum takes this approach and states that children learn through individual exploration and reflecting. (Ministry of Education, 1996, p. 9) Montessori encouraged parents and caregivers to visit the classroom at any time; however, they were not allowed to distract the children or the teacher. (Montessori, 1912) Parents and caregivers are encouraged to visit the mainstream classroom and take an interest in their children. Parental involvement and understanding are necessary ingredients to realising the full potential of a Montessori education. (Hainstock, 1997, preface) Montessori believed that every child had a right to an education regardless of class, culture, race and ability. (Montessori, 1912) Te WhÄ riki states the curriculum assumes that their care and education will be encompassed within the principles, strands and goals set out for all children in early childhood settings. (Ministry of Education, 1996) Differences Montessoris method was to stand back, observe, and let the child solve the problem themselves regardless of time taken. (Montessori, 1912) Education is different today. Teachers have to use the New Zealand curriculum which dictates what and when they have to teach. (Ministry of Education, 2007) There is still a certain amount of flexibility; however, the teachers are unable to leave children for a long time. Montessori grouped children into three age groups which they stayed in until they were old enough to progress to the next group. She did not have a new entrance class. (Montessori, 1912) Our education system insists that children are put into aged related classrooms. (Ministry of Education, 2007) Montessori was a great believer in children working individually or in small groups. (Montessori, 1912) Todays children are taught in classroom group situations. (Hainstock, 1997) Influences Controversy and confusion, mainly through misunderstanding, misinterpretation, and partial application of the method were common over the years. Other influences impacting include: mainstream resistance, political and philosophical vagaries, and funding problems, statutory and regulatory impositions. Cultural elements have also been introduced into the curriculum and modifications have occurred. The shortage of Montessori trained teachers had a detrimental effect as well. (Shuker, 2004) Contribution to educational setting The whole concept, philosophy and application of the Montessori Method obviously confine it to an alternative role in the field of education in Aotearoa New Zealand. Enthusiastic pioneers of the system such as Martha Simpson and Binda Goldsbrough have been followed by equally enthusiastic and committed parents. The formation of a Montessori movement, teacher training standards, and the evolution to higher education levels shows there is an enduring and well supported demand for the Montessori approach. The survival of Montessori for over 100 years is due in some part to its portability, culture sensitivity to its resident country and adaptability. (Shuker, 2004) Conclusion Personal reflection by Catherine Mitchell Maria Montessori was ahead of her time. She had the childrens best interests at heart. However I feel had she been able to accept criticism in a constructive way then her methods would have had more of an influence in society today. Montessoris methods were built on her observations of the children and were adapted to meet their needs. I will use a lot of Montessoris methods in my teaching, as I agree with her approach. Each child is an individual; we should be embracing this and allow the child to develop at their own pace. It is important as a teacher that you do what is best for the children in your care. My own attitudes have not changed; instead they have enforced my beliefs that each child is unique. Personal reflection by Faye Winter What to make of Montessori? With no real previous knowledge, apart from being aware that is was an alternative education centre, this study has been extremely interesting and revealing. The credibility of the method is well supported by the founders wide academic background allied with her actual experience and observations with both special needs and mainstream children. In this regard, the method is well founded. Although there is a wide range of literature on the subject, acceptance or otherwise of the approach invites further in-depth study, preferably along with hands on experience. As a staff member at an early childhood centre, I can see the potential for the introduction of certain elements, in particular, the use of Montessori didactic materials. Montessori once said she had discovered the child. This may well be the key to her method.

Misuse of power by health care professionals

Misuse of power by health care professionals This assignment will discuss the potential for professional misuse of power by health care professionals when working with vulnerable group. This assignment will mainly be focusing on age care residents as a vulnerable group and why they are at a potential risk of misuse of power by health care professionals as well as what strategies are put into affect to address the overall situation and to prevent this from happening in the future, as well as outline legislation and professional codes of conduct involved with client care of this group. Age care residents suffer from a range of different illnesses which puts them in a high risk of being vulnerable, abused from people that are providing care for these residents. Elderly abuse is a wide spread concern throughout Australia in particular age care facilities, no one really knows how many elderly residents are abused each year as this form of abuse goes unreported. Elderly residents can be abused by health care professionals that are providing care. There are many forms of abuse which can be intentional (both physically and mentally) or unintentional (lack of knowledge, inexperience or inability to provide good care). According to (agedcarecrisis, 2008) there is physical abuse, emotional abuse, sexual abuse exploitation, abandonment, neglect, emotional and psychological abuse, and financial abuse. These types of abuse towards the elderly vary in reason, as of now there has been little public and professional awareness/knowledge regarding elderly abuse and neglect. More of ten then not victims are hidden from the public view (World Health Organisation 2002). Over the years social attitudes and negative stereotyping of elderly people have led to a lack of knowledge of how the real situation of this problem is. Sometimes the elderly victim may not say anything because they feel ashamed that the abuse is happening, and may also fear retribution from the health care professional that are caring for them. Sometimes symptoms and signs may be over looked and recognized as part of the aging process. There are a number of reasons why elderly residents are neglected or abused in age care facilities by heath care professionals this due to unqualified and insufficient staffing. Often when staff members dont have the proper training then there is a very serious problem in regards to duty of care for these elderly residents which then can lead to neglect and abuse (agedcarecrisis 2008). Nursing home abuse can happen due to these major factors, staff members working longer hours then they should and sometimes are overworked, underpaid and not having enough benefits, staff more often then not feel frustrated with elderly residents that are being hostile and defiant, and staff in a hurry to get home after a long day. Neglect is a form of elderly abuse which can be associated with the failure or refusal to any part of a staff members obligations or duties to a nursing home resident. Neglect and abuse in nursing homes may include the failure to provide basic life necessities which in this case are food, water, clothing, shelter, personal hygiene, medication, comfort, personal safety, and other basic life necessities which is a agreed upon responsibility to providing duty of care to all nursing home resident(agedcarecrisis 2008). The majority of elderly residents want to be cared for by health care professionals that are helpful and treat them with kindness respect and dignity, more often then not the elderly residents are bombarded with excuses of how staff are too busy and are often run off their feet then it is no wonder that elderly residents feel like they are a burden and are quiet reluctant to tell anyone if there is a problem concerning their wellbeing. Health care professionals need to really listen and communicate to the elderly residents so that improvements can be made to ensure that these elderly residents are getting the best care possible. Health care professionals have a legal, moral and ethical obligation to provide duty of care for all elderly residents that are residing in an age care facility (agedcarecrisis 2008). The user rights principle 1997 made under the age care act 1997 includes a charter of residents rights and responsibilities. The charter details the rights and responsibility of all residents including personal, civil, legal and consumer rights. The charter also outlines residents responsibilities in relation to other residents, staff and the residential age care service community as a whole.(Agedcarecrisis 2008) The care standards act 2000 includes requirements that refer in some way to the protection of the elderly in nursing home facilities to gain a thorough insight into legislation that, Governs how nursing home work is preformed. There other legislation that governs the protection of elderly abuse is as follows: human rights act 1998, data protection act 1984, and mental health act 1993-2000 (Pooley P, 2006).According to the (Age care standards and accreditation agency ltd 2010) there are forty-four standards that all age care facilities must abide by at all times. If these standards are not met the accreditation period can be reduced or revoked. The agency then can refer all serious allegations to the Department of health and ageing for further investigation. The department then can take further action if necessary if it finds standards of care, accommodation are not being met by Government subsidized age care homes or also by approved providers (Department of health and ageing, agedca re Australia 2007). The first three of the four accreditation standards are, continuous improvement- were the organization actively pursues improvement, regulatory compliance- the organizations management has systems in place to identify and ensure compliance with all relevant legislation, regulatory requirements, professional standards and guidelines, education and staff development management and staff have appropriate knowledge and skills to perform their roles effectively. These standards are intentional to enhance the quality of performance under all accreditation standards; it provides opportunities for improvements in all aspects of service delivery and is essential of overall quality (department of health and aging 2010) According to the (Department of health and aging 2010) The Aged Care Education and Training Incentive (ACETI) program will provide incentive payments to eligible aged care workers who undertake specified education and training programs. In 2010-11 budget, the Australian government provided $59.9 million over four years for a national incentive program that will provide payments to eligible aged care workers who undertake further studies to enhance their career as a personal care worker, an enrolled nurse or a registered nurse. This Australian Government (Department of health and aging 2010) programs supporting individuals in the Aged Care Workforce, The Support for Aged Care Training (SACT) Program funds aged care workers training, associated travel and accommodation costs and backfilling of staff attending training in smaller aged care homes in rural and remote locations of Australia. A pioneering trial that allows workers to gain NVQ in record time has reported excellent results. Instead of the twelve month period that was allocated, care workers could now gain their NVQ within a month. The staffs of BUPA care homes were among those taking part, and according to the results the new more intensive program has more to offer the care sectors. In addition to high levels of learner satisfaction some ninety-four percent of all care workers who took part completed their training successfully, a figure which compares very favorably with the industry average rate of just sixty-seven percent (Pooley, P, 2006). The intensive course covered Training in areas such as health, care and hygiene as well as providing instruction on a range of practical task such as moving and handling. Following the success of this training the Government plans to re-launch the National Employer Training Scheme, later this year under the banner Train to gain. This form of training has been welcomed by experts. This is more an effective way of learning and more time is spent with their tutor then in the past said Trina Mumby of the National Employer Service. The results speak for themselves under this new program, care assistants are far more likely to successfully complete qualifications and retain what they have learnt. Mark walker, health safety and training manager for BUPA said the dedication of our people is the most important factor in delivering high quality care tailored to our residents individual needs, thats why we invest heavily in training and development (Pooley, P, 2006). still throughout the care industry as a whole, training and skills has been something of a problem area, with many employers citing the many difficulties involved in recruiting and retaining good quality, well trained staff. If new initiatives such as the intensive one month NVQ can be made to be successful on a larger scale there is potential for multiple benefits for all involved in the sector. Employers can also benefit who are well trained and motivated as well as likely to remain in their jobs thus relieving the recruitment problems experienced by many care home managers (Pooley, P, 2006), However perhaps the most vital difference is that the patients themselves enjoy being looked after by staff that are skilled enough to provide them with high standards of care in their choice of home. While the government focusing increasingly on improving standards, the new program looks like a good thing for all concerned. In conclusion this assignment has tried to hopefully explain how health care professionals misuse of power can affect then people that they are looking after and in this case it happens to be the elderly residents in age care facilities that suffer. All health care professionals need to understand and respect residents /clients rights. Being in a position that gives this kind of power over other people can not be taken too lightly, however in some cases this is what exactly happens. There are legislations that govern the protection of elderly abuse, human rights act 1998, data protection act 1984, and mental health act 1993-2000. The charter of residents rights under the age care act of 1997 outlines the rights and responsibilities of all residents which include their civil, legal and consumer, rights and a further description of the charter of residents rights can be seen on the Department of health and aging website. All age care facilities can be accredited by the age care standar ds and accreditation agency for up to three years. More ongoing workplace training and in-services are need within the age care facilities to enable health care professionals to gain valuable knowledge and skills which will then lead to better health care service delivery. Residents in age care facilities dont want to feel like they are a burden to the health care professionals that are caring for them instead they want to feel like they can talk to someone when there is a problem. Health care professionals have a duty of care and a huge responsibility to look after and protect residents form any forms of abuse it is a legal ethical and moral obligation that has been entrusted to all who work as health care professional. Any form of abuse is a breach of personal, civil, legal, and consumer rights according to the charter of residents rights. Abuse and neglect is the failure to provide basic life necessities which includes food, water, clothing, shelter, personal hygiene, medications, comfort, personal safety, and other life necessiti es which is agreed upon responsibility by health care professionals ensuring duty of care is provide to all nursing home residents . There are a number of reasons of why age care residents are abused, staff working longer hours, being overworked, underpaid, not enough benefits, feeling frustrated towards aggressive residents, and in a hurry to get home after a long day. There are number of reasons why residents are often abused but the most common ones are the lack of understanding and knowledge, unqualified, insufficient staffing or staff not properly trained this is when problems can and will occur. The elderly are still human-being that have wants and needs like the rest of the population and would like to fit in with the rest of society just like everyone else instead of being isolated and forgotten.

Tamoxifen Undergoes Optimization Essay -- Medical Drug

Tamoxifen Undergoes Optimization Abstract Computer programs like GaussView and Gaussian 03W are some of the advanced tools that can be used by scientists to design and optimize new designed drug. Using the exact same tools as scientists today, I am going to take a known drug, Tamoxifen, and create few analogs similar to its structure. Before I can create some analogs in GaussView, I am going to study and examine the structure of Tamoxifen to understand the chemistry that involves in this structure. For example, the bonds between molecules and the interactions between the drug and estrogen receptor complex site. After I design an analog of Tamoxifen, I will then use the Gaussian 03W program to optimize the analog. As for the last step in determining if an analog is a good candidate for a new designed drug, I am going to use a special computer program called OpenEye Software to help me make that prediction. Introduction Breast Cancer is the most common type of cancer known among women in the US. It is the second-leading cause of cancer-related deaths. More than 180,000 women are diagnosed with breast cancer each year. In 2006, out of all of these women, 40,000 died. Although breast cancer mainly affects women, data shows that men can also be affected as well; each year more than 1,000 men are diagnosed with breast cancer 3. This information shows that cancer can affect anyone regardless of an individual’s gender, ethnicity, etc. It is important that everyone knows about breast cancer and helps friends or family members with breast cancer to find way to diagnose it. In nowadays, scientists are learning more about cancer and are exploring new ways to prevent, detect, diagnose, and treat this deadly disease 1. .. ...c., 1997. 3. Corey, E. J., Barbara Czako, and Laszlo Kurti. Molecules and medicine. New Jersey: John Wiley &Sons, Inc., 2007. 4. Jordan, V., ed. Long-Term Tamoxifen Treatment for Breast Cancer. Wisconsin: The University of Wisconsin Press, 1994. 5. Oxford University Press. "Figure 18.44: Tamoxifen." Online Resource Centre. 29 Jul. 2008. tamoxifen.jpg>. 6. Wikipedia. "Tamoxifen." Wikipedia. 29 Jul. 2008. . 7. Wiseman, Helen. Tamoxifen-Molecular Basis of Use in Cancer Treatment and Prevention. England: John Wiley &Sons Ltd, 1994. 8. Nolte, RT. "Crystal structure of Estrogen Related Reecptor-3 (ERR-gamma) ligand binding domaind with tamoxifen analog GSK5182." Protein Data Bank. 29 Jul. 2008. .

Is Abortion the Best Option? Essay -- essays research papers

LIFE   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Many people talk about many issues. Some are more heated than others are. Abortion is an issue that divides are nation like no other. Religions, sexes, and even political parties take opposite sides on the issue. The question is, which opinion is morally permissible? What is abortion you might ask? In the Merriam-Webster dictionary, abortion was defined as induced termination of pregnancy and expulsion of embryo or fetus: cessation of normal growth, prior to full development or maturation. In simple terms, the killing of an embryo and extracting it. Where did all this rage and brewing arguments come from? Well, in 1973 the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Jane Roe in a 7-2 decision. This decision allowed abortions to be legal in all 50 states that were performed within the first trimester of pregnancy. Prior to this decision, an abortion was only performed to save a mother’s life. Since this controversial decision was made, the issue of abortion rings throughout American society everyday (Goldman, Jerry). As soon after the decision in 1973, the American people quickly jumped to one side or another. These two sides were pro-life and pro-choice. A pro-choice person believes that this developing embryo is merely a mass of tissue just as developing skin cells or liver cells. This person believes that it is the woman’s choice whether to have the baby or not. The baby is being carried within her body and being provided nutrients by her, and stopping the development of this fetus for any reason is not wrong. This group strongly agrees with the 1973 Supreme Court decision and pushes for more abortion rights. A pro-lifer believes that the unborn child is a human being and has the right to live. Aborting this unborn child is considered an act of murder to this group. John Noonan is a professor of law at the University of Berkeley. Noonan is a Roman Catholic philosopher who argues abortion is morally wrong. He defends the conservative view (pro-life) by stating, â€Å"an entity becomes a person at conception and that abortion, except to save the mother’s life, is morally wrong.† He believes that fetuses are innocent human beings, and since it is wrong to kill innocent human beings, which fetuses are innocent humans, it is wrong to kill fetuses. (Abortion) Noonan asks the question: How do you determine the humanity of a being? He goes o... ...hich 390 are ovulated. Once spermatozoon and ovum meet, studies show that only about 20 percent have a chance at spontaneous abortion. In simple terms, the chance of a fetus developing is 1 out of 5 times. This seems to be outstanding odds. (Biology Book)   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The next issue to be discussed is experience. Pro-choice would argue that one who has experienced, lived and suffered, one who possess memories, is more human than one who has not. This distinction is not serviceable. An embryo after eight weeks is experiencing, as it is responsive to touch and sensation. Furthermore, if a human has lost his memory due to say aphasia, then is he not human? Based on this issue he would not be. Nor would the man who has never loved or learned, for these are certainly human experiences.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Finally, I must sum everything up with some biblical reasoning, being a strong believer in God. The word of God states, â€Å"do not injure your fellow man without reason.† In these terms, once the humanity of a fetus is perceived.(Abortion Facts) Abortion simply violates the equality of human life. So I end with a question, are abortions wrong? You decide.